Place of Gailic on the Indo-european Family Tree

The Indo-European branch of languages ​​isone of the largest language families in Eurasia. It has spread throughout the terminal 5 centuries too in South and North America, Commonwealth of australia and partly in Africa. Indo-European languages ​​before the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries occupied territory from E Turkestan, located in the east, to Ireland in the west, from India in the s to Scandinavia in the north. This family includes nearly 140 languages. In total, they are spoken by well-nigh 2 billion people (according to 2007 estimates). The English language takes the leading place among them in terms of the number of speakers.

The importance of Indo-European languages ​​in comparative-historical linguistics

In the evolution of comparative-historical linguisticsimportant function that belongs to the study of Indo-European languages. The fact is that their family was one of the offset, which scientists isolated, having a great temporal depth. As a rule, in science, other families determined, orienting direct or indirectly on the feel gained in the study of Indo-European languages.

Methods for comparison languages

Languages ​​can be compared in different ways. Typology is one of the nearly common of them. It is the study of the types of linguistic phenomena, as well as the discovery on the ground of this universal laws existing at different levels. Yet, this method is non applicable in the genetic sense. In other words, with the help of it one tin can not study languages ​​in terms of their origin. The principal office for comparative studies should be played by the concept of kinship, as well equally the methodology for its establishment.

Genetic nomenclature of Indo-European languages

Information technology is an analogue of the biological, on the basis ofwhich distinguish different groups of species. Thanks to it, we can systematize many languages, which number about six thousand. Having identified the patterns, we can reduce all this to a relatively small number of language families. The results obtained as a result of genetic nomenclature are invaluable not only for linguistics, but also for a number of other related disciplines. In particular, they are of import for ethnography, since the emergence and development of various languages ​​is closely related to ethnogenesis (the emergence and development of ethnoses).

Genealogical tree of Indo-European languagessuggests that the differences between them increase over time. This can be expressed in such a fashion that the distance between them increases, which is measured as the length of the branches or the pointer of the tree.

The branches of the Indo-European family

Genealogical tree of Indo-European languageshas many branches. Information technology is distinguished every bit large groups, and consisting of only one linguistic communication. Nosotros list them. This is the New Greek linguistic communication, the Indo-Iranian languages, Italian (including Latin), Romanesque, Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Baltic, Albanian, Armenian, Anatolian (Hittite-Luvian) and Tocharian. It includes, in addition, a number of extinct, which are known to us from scanty sources, mainly on a few glosses, inscriptions, toponyms and anthroponyms from Byzantine and Greek authors. It is Thracian, Phrygian, Messapic, Illyrian, Sometime Macedonian, Venetian. They tin not be reliably attributed to a particular grouping (branch). Perhaps they should be separated into separate groups (branches), forming the genealogical tree of the Indo-European languages. Scientists exercise non have a common stance on this issue.

Of course, there were, also the listedabove, and other Indo-European languages. Their fate was different. Some of them completely died out, others left behind a few traces in the substratum vocabulary and toponyms. Attempts were made to restore some Indo-European languages ​​along these meager tracks. The most famous reconstructions of this kind are the Cimmerian language. He allegedly left traces in the Baltic and Slavic. It should also exist noted Pelagian, which spoke pre-Greek population of ancient Greece.

Pidgins

During the expansion of diverse languages ​​of the Indo-Europeana group that occurred during the terminal centuries, dozens of new pidgins were formed on a Romanic and Germanic basis. They are characterized by a radically reduced vocabulary (1,5 one thousand words or less) and simplified grammar. Subsequently, some of them were creolized, while others became fully functional both in functional and grammatical terms. These are bislama, tok-pisin, cryo in Sierra Leone, Republic of equatorial guinea and the The gambia; seshelva in the Seychelles; Mauritius, Haitian and Reunion, and others.

Every bit an example, we requite a brief clarification of the two languages ​​of the Indo-European family. The beginning 1 is Tajik.

Tajik

He belongs to the Indo-European family unit, tothe Indo-Iranian branch and the Iranian grouping. Information technology is public in Tajikistan, distributed in Central Asia. Together with the Dari language, the literary idiom of the Afghani Tajiks, it refers to the eastern zone of the dialect of the New Persian continuum. This language tin exist considered equally a variant of Persian (northeastern). Until now, in that location is a possible mutual understanding betwixt those who employ the Tajik language and the Persian-speaking inhabitants of Islamic republic of iran.

Ossetian

He belongs to the Indo-European languages, tothe Indo-Iranian branch, the Iranian grouping and the eastern subgroup. The Ossetian linguistic communication is common in South and Due north Ossetia. The total number of speakers is almost 450-500 thousand people. In that location are traces of ancient contacts with Slavic, Turkic and Finno-Ugric. The Ossetian language has 2 dialects: Irish and Digorian.

Disintegration of the basic language

Not subsequently than the quaternary millennium BC. e. there was a disintegration of a single Indo-European language-ground. This event led to the emergence of many new ones. Figuratively speaking, the genealogical tree of the Indo-European languages ​​began to abound from the seed. There is no doubt that the Hittite-Luvian languages ​​separated first. The time of separating the Tocharian branch is the most controversial because of the scarcity of the data.

Attempts to combine unlike branches

The Indo-European language family unit includesnumerous branches. Not in one case take attempts been made to unite them amidst themselves. For example, hypotheses were expressed that the Slavic and Baltic languages ​​are particularly close. This was besides assumed for Celtic and Italic. To date, the well-nigh commonly recognized is the unification of Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages, as well equally Nuristani and Dardi into the Indo-Iranian branch. In some cases, it was even possible to restore the verbal formulas feature of the Indo-Iranian primacy.

Equally yous know, the Slavs refer to the Indo-Europeanlanguage family. Nevertheless, it has not been determined until now whether their languages ​​should be separated into a separate branch. The same applies to the Baltic peoples. Balto-Slavic unity causes a lot of controversy in such an association as the Indo-European language family unit. Its people can not be unequivocally attributed to this or that co-operative.

Equally for other hypotheses, they areare rejected in modern scientific discipline. Different traits can form the basis for the segmentation of such a large association, as the Indo-European linguistic communication family. The peoples who are the bearer of ane or another of its languages ​​are numerous. Therefore, it is non so like shooting fish in a barrel to allocate them. Various attempts were fabricated to create a harmonious organisation. For example, co-ordinate to the development of the back-lingual Indo-European consonants, all the languages ​​of this grouping were divided into kentum and satem. These associations are named so by the reflection of the give-and-take "one hundred." In the satem languages, the initial sound of this pre-Indo-European word is reflected in the class "w", "c", etc. As for the kentum ones, it is characterized by "ten", "k", etc.

The commencement comparativists

The origin of comparative-historical linguistics itself is attributed to the outset of the 19th century and is associated with the name of Franz Bopp. In his piece of work, he first proved the scientific affinity of the Indo-European languages.

The first comparativists past nationality werethe Germans. This F. Bopp, J. Zeiss, J. Grimm and others. They starting time drew attention to the fact that Sanskrit (ancient Indian language) has great similarity with German. They proved that some Iranian, Indian and European languages ​​take a mutual origin. Then these scientists united them into an "Indo-German" family. After a while it was established that Slavic and Baltic are of exceptional importance for the reconstruction of the Proto-linguistic communication. So there was a new term - "Indo-European languages".

Merit of August Schleicher

Baronial Schleicher (pictured in a higher place) inmid-19th century summarized the achievements of predecessors-comparativists. He described in detail each subgroup of the Indo-European family, in particular, its most ancient country. The scientist proposed to employ the principles of reconstruction of the general proto-language. In the correctness of his own reconstruction, he did not doubt at all. Schleicher even wrote a text in the original Russian language, which he recreated. This is a fable "Sheep and horses".

Comparative-historical linguisticswas formed every bit a effect of the study of diverse related languages, as well as the processing of methods for proving their kinship and the reconstruction of a certain initial proto-linguistic country. August Schleicher has the merit of depicting schematically the process of their evolution in the form of a family tree. The Indo-European language group appears in this example in the following form: the trunk is a common antecedent linguistic communication, and groups of related languages ​​are branches. The family tree became a graphic representation of a distant and close relationship. In add-on, information technology pointed to the presence of closely related common common language (Balto-Slavic - for the ancestors of the Balts and Slavs, the German-Slavic - for the ancestors of the Balts, Slavs and Germans, etc.).

Modern research by Quentin Atkinson

More recently, an international grouping of biologists and linguists institute that the Indo-European linguistic communication grouping originated in Anatolia (Turkey).

Information technology is she, from their signal of view, who is the homelandthis group. The research was led by Quentin Atkinson, a biologist from the University of Auckland located in New Zealand. Scientists used methods that were used to study the evolution of species for the analysis of various Indo-European languages. They analyzed the dictionary of 103 languages. In add-on, they studied the data on their historical development and geographical distribution. Based on this, the researchers made this determination.

Examination of cognates

How did these scientists written report linguistic communication groupsIndo-European family? They considered the cognates. These are single-root words that take a similar sound and common origin in two or more than languages. They are usually words that are less subject to change in the process of evolution (denoting related relationships, the names of parts of the trunk, too as pronouns). Scientists compared the number of cognates in unlike languages. Based on this, they determined the degree of their relationship. Thus, cognates were likened to genes, and mutations were differences in cognates.

Apply of historical information and geographic data

Then scientists resorted to historical data ontime, when the divergence of languages ​​was supposedly realized. For example, information technology is believed that in the year 270 the Latin languages ​​of the Romance grouping began to separate from Latin. Information technology was at this time that Emperor Aurelian decided to take Roman colonists from the province of Dacia. In addition, the researchers used data on the electric current geographical distribution of various languages.

Results of the study

After combining the information received,An evolutionary tree was created on the basis of the following two hypotheses: Kurgan and Anatolian. Researchers, comparing the resulting two trees, found that "Anatolian" from the point of view of statistics is the most likely.

The reaction of colleagues to theresults obtained past the Atkinson group. Many scientists noted that a comparing with the biological evolution of the linguistic is unacceptable, since they take unlike mechanisms. However, other scientists found information technology quite justified to use such methods. Yet, the grouping was criticized for not checking the third hypothesis, the Balkan hypothesis.

Annotation that for today the mainThe hypotheses of the origin of the Indo-European languages ​​are Anatolian and Kurgan. According to the first, the nearly popular among historians and linguists, their ancestors are the Black Bounding main steppes. Other hypotheses, Anatolian and Balkan, suggest that the Indo-European languages ​​spread from Anatolia (in the first case) or from the Balkan Peninsula (in the 2nd).

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